Neville Chamberlain

• Foreign Policy
  • Is a conservative British Prime Minister (1937-1940)
  • Appeasement
  • He is convinced that German is unhappy for a good reason. He wants to remove causes of unhappiness to make Europe peaceful.
  • Chamberlain believes that German discontent is based on moral principle of self-determination.
  • There are 6 million Germans in Austria, 3 million in Czechoslovakia and 4 million in Poland mostly because France wanted to keep Germany small.
• Change in French Regime
  • Lord Halifax, the British Foreign Minister, met with Hitler in 1937 and convey Chamberlain's sentiments, similar to the British attitude towards Locarno East.
  • Georges Bonnet (Foreign minister) Bonnet Edward Doladier (French president) after the collapse of the Popular Front in 1938 become the right centrist leaders of France.
  • After the collapse of the Stresa Front, the League, and the Spanish Civil War the urgency is to come to terms, not resist, Hitler.
  • Bonnet will let the Germans know that France is amenable to change in Eastern Europe.
  • They want it to be peaceful and done with arbitration and to the satisfaction of all involved. They will sacrifice chunks of E Europe to maintain the peace.
• The Gentleman's Agreement of 1936
  • Austria and Germany's relationship was sour because of the Dolfus Murder (1934)
  • Austria has been backed by Italy, but no longer because of the Ethiopian Crisis.
  • Italy makes a deal with Hitler that lifts the bans on Nazis and frees the Nazi prisoners, which leads to a closer relationship with Germany. This is the Gentleman's agreement.
  • Kurt Schussnigg is the Austrian Chancellor (1934-1938). He is a world war 1 veteran who unsuccessfully attempts to balance Austria between powerful neighbors: Italy and Germany.
  • German ambassador to Austria is Franz von Papen who was fired in Hossbach purge is interested in a meeting to get closer relations.
• Schusnigg-Hitler Interview 1938
  • Hitler and Schussnigg meet at Berghof
  • Hitler verbally abuses and threatens Schussnigg with annihilation. Schussnigg acquiesces under buress agrees to appoint more Nazi ministers including control of the Police and align Austrian economic and military policy with Germans. They agree to become a German Satellite. Hitler gives him three days to gain agreement.
  • Schussnigg goes to Austria and rethinks his agreement and decides to hold a plebiscite while baking on the support of France, Italy, and Great Britain, but the support is not forthcoming.
  • Hitler is angered by Schussnigg's plebiscite and plans to invade Austria before plebiscite to prevent "internal disorder."
  • Schussnigg resigns in favor of a crypto-Nazi Artur Seyss-Inquant on the day before the invasion.
  • Hitler invades anyway, much to the pleasure of the Austrian people.
  • Hitler's triumphant return to homeland and makes an impromptu decision to make a speech before a massive crowd in Vienna. During the speech he says that he is going to incorporate Austria into the homeland.
  • Mussolini receives eternal thanks from Hitler.
  • Great Britain and France to not act.
• Annexation of Czechoslovakia
  • Background
    • Immediately with the annexation of Austria, C-S finds itself into a difficult geographical position in the jaws of the 3rd Reich.
    • C-s is not a national state, it is a state of nationalities, similar to Yugoslavia
    • Czechs, Slovaks, Ethnic Germans, Magyars, Poles, and Ruthenes (Ukranians)
    • Czech dominated state with democratic institutions, but the non-Czechs have limited rights and possess varying degrees of nationalism
    • C-s was a creation of the treaties of St. Germain and Trianon.
  • The Sudetenland Movement
    • The most restive element are the ethnic Germans (previous Austrians), who live in the Sudetenland.
    • The Sudetenland is a serpentine strip of C-s parallel to German and former Austrian borders. There are 3 million Sudetens in C-s and all clamor to join Germany after the Anschluss in March 1938.
    • Sudetens have developed a secessionist/ autonomous/ with equal rights independent of German influence.
    • The Nazis fund and support the Sudetens led by Konrad Heinlein doing constant peaceful protests. He never fully states his demands.
  • Alliances
    • Czechs are the dominant group in this democracy led by a seasoned politician Edouard Benes. The Czechs are allies of France after the Anschluss, and so the Brits ask France what they are prepared to do to help the Czechs.
    • The Czechs also have an alliance with the Soviets, but only if France intervenes first. The Czechs are also enemies of the Poles and the Hungarians because of territorial issues.
    • Internally and externally, the Czechs have a multitude of problems.
  • Positions
    • Czech position:
      • Benes is confident that France and Great Britain will not abandon them. In fact, he is aggressive towards Hitler to help garner their support.
      • He refuses to bow to Hitler's threats. The Czech army is strong and is equal to the Germany army in size and equipment.
    • The British position:
      • Under Neville Chamberlain are aware that France will not act without their support, but they feel morally obligated to defend the Czechs, and they wish to keep the Soviets out of Europe.
      • Chamberlain wants to make a deal and win a Nobel Prize. Britain realizes, along with France, that they can do little to aid the Czechs.
    • The French position:
      • We will not abandon our allies (we are insecure). French military policy has been defensive (Maginot Line) while much of their diplomacy has been offensive.
      • France will not act without Great Britain, and they would prefer to avoid war.
    • Hitler's position:
      • He is indifferent to the plight of the ethnic Germans. He really wants to destroy Czechoslovakia as a French ally. He wants to convert it to a German satellite.
      • The Sudetens are a means to an end. Hitler exhorts the German press to release details of the Czech atrocities directed at the German minority. This creates domestic and foreign support for oppressed Sudetens.
  • Results
    • In May of 1938, Benes will tell the world German invasion is imminent. He mobilizes his army and sends them to German border. This Enrages Hitler, but it scares Chamberlain to death because he wants to make a deal. This simmers all summer.
    • In early September 1938, Chamberlain will fly to Germany to meet Hitler at Berghof. Earlier, Hitler had ordered his generals to draw up plans for the invasion of Czechoslovakia. He did this knowing that he had generals who would pass this on to the British.
    • During this meeting, Hitler rages for a couple of hours and "Smash the Czechs," when he is really aiming for concessions. Chamberlain offers the annexation of the Sudetenland.
    • Chamberlain flies home and sells the deal to the French Cabinet and the reluctant Czechs
    • But Benes also has to repress massive Sudeten demonstrations in CS
    • This changes Hitler's attitude and the deal is off
    • Hitler now wants to annex Sudetenland and occupy CS militarily to prevent internal disorder
    • Chamberlain flies back to Germany and meets Hitler at Godesberg where Hitler violently enunciates his intentions to smash the Czechs
      • Germans must be allowed to invade CS
      • Chamberlain acquiesces and returns to London, only to discover Hitler wants more
      • Hungary and Poland (who have treaties with Germany) also have minority/territorial issues which must be fulfilled
      • Hitler announces his intention to invade on Oct 1
      • At the same time, Hitler contacts Mussolini and suggests that Mussolini convene a 4-power conference to solve the Czech problem at Munich
    • Germany, Italy, France and GB all convenes at Munich on Sep 27-29 (Munich Pact)
      • Hitler, Mussolini, Daladier, and Chamberlain meet without Czechs and Soviets
      • Mussolini plays the role of the impartial arbitrator (secretly fronts Hitler's demands)
      • They announce the Munich Pact on Sep 29
        • Germany annexes the Sudetenland
        • Militarily occupies CS
        • Remainder of CS will be broken up into 3 autonomous regions
          • Czech
          • Slovak
          • Carpatho-Ukraine
        • Hungarian and Polish demands will be arbitrated by Germany and Italy
        • All four countries guarantees remnant of CS
    • Soviets are particularly angry  because they feel that the western powers are purposefully pushing Hitler eastward
      • This agrees with the pain of Mein Kampf called Lebensraum, a movement to the east
    • Benes is forced out of office and replaced by the more sympathetic Emil Hacha
    • In Dec 1938, a joint Italo-German commission will award Czech territory to both Hungary and Poland
  • 2nd Czech Crisis
    • In March 1939, the Slovaks begin to revolt to gain full independence in the face of Czech reprisals
      • Another Spanish Civil War is imminent
    • Hitler summons Hacha to Berlin to demand that Hacha appeal for German military assistance to stop the violence in Czechoslovakia
      • Goes ape on Hacha who then suffers a heart attack
      • Hitler summons his doctor who gives Hacha an adrenaline shot and revives him wherein he signs the pre-written document inviting German intervention
    • Hitler intervenes militarily to save the Czechs
      • Establishes a protectorate and a Slovak satellite
    • This is the straw that breaks the camels back for the British, and the French follow them
      • GB, for the first time, will guarantee Poland (they will go to war if Hitler messes with Poland)
      • Poland ~ to Czechs
        • Post WWI state
        • Formed from old Prussia and Germnay
          • Upper and lower Silesia
          • German minority in Poland

Domestic control by Nazis in Germany

• Army and Infrastructure Developments
  • Hitler eliminates unemployment through a massive rearmament and infrastructure program.
  • The Army, Navy, and Air Force and constructed. Autoban is an interstate highway system with no speed limit.
  • All east-west and a few North-South for two front contingencies. Late 1930s the German economy was booming under severe deficit spending.
  • Theory is that Hitler went to war to cover his financial misdeeds.
  • By Mid 1938, the Spanish Civil War and the failure of the League in Ethiopia has firmly bound Italy and Germany together in the Pact of Steel.
  • This places Austria in a difficult position. Hitler, an Austrian would like to reach close economic union with Austria as was attempted in 1931.
• Hitler consolidates powers by the creation of fear, which leads to solidarity.
• Nazis aim to blame Jews, gypsies, Communists, Homosexuals, mentally disabled people, aged people, and Masons.
• Nazi Propaganda machine controls knowledge through the press, radio broadcasts, and movies, which all perpetuate the theory of German Aryan greatness.
• There are mass propaganda events: torchlight parades, Party rallies, and general celebration of Nazi greatness create the illusion of success.
• Nuremberg Laws (1935) are the Jim Crow Black codes of Anti-Semitism
  • Define what a Jew is: having one Jewish grandma.
  • Jews were prohibited from marrying Aryans, and could not be teachers, professors, or governmental employees.
  • There were travel restrictions, and identification requirements with the yellow star of David.
• There is a mass exodus of Jews from Germany (600k left in Germany from 90 million).
• Einstein, Henry Kissinger, and many scientists and artisans come to the US. The Manhattan Project probably would have failed without the help from these Jewish scientists.
• By 1937, the Jews in Germany are ghetto-ized restricted to certain areas. In 1937, the German ambassador to France is assassinated by a 16 year old French Jew. This will trigger an organized terror of Jews (called pogroms).
• Kristallnacht is The Night of Broken Glass: synagogues, businesses, and homes were targeted by the SA and German police. This is basically an opportunity to burn and loot.
• This completes the exodus of Jews from Germany. Now is when we see a movement towards Palestine/Israel.
• Driving out "evil" made the Germans feel better about themselves.
• Hossbach Memorandum: Hitler still has issues with the Army, old junker conservatives, and capitalists inside Germany.
  • Hitler's aggressive foreign policy and rearmament in being held back by these groups. Rearmament and infrastructure development began to become troubling
    • Economically since the deficit spending is causing inflation
    • Diplomatically Hitler's policy is severely expansionist demonstrated by the Stresa Front, Rhineland and
    • Militarily the army is growing too rapidly for the Prussian Generals who feared the road to war
  • He has a meeting in 1937 with leading industrialists and generals. He says that they are on the road to war and outlines all the potential threats to Germany
  • Major Hossbach took the notes for this violent verbal encounter: the result is that Hitler will purge (nicely) some of the old leadership inside Germany:
    • The German foreign minister Count von Neaurath is replaced with Joachim Ribbentrop, a Nazi
    • German Finance Minister was an established industrialist Hjalmar Schacht (financed Nazi boom times) is replaced by the Reich's führer Herman Goring and plenipotentiary for the 4 year plan.
    • The War Minister Fritsch was replaced by Wilhelm Keitel
    • The Head of the German Army, Blomberg was replaced by Hitler

Spanish Civil War

• Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
  • In retrospect, the Spanish Civil War is a continuation of the European Fascist/ non-Fascist Divide that began with the Abyssinian Crisis and its aftermath.
  • By the end of 1936, the League of Nations is a powerless institution, Italy has left the Stresa Front and Locarno associations and became allied with Germany via the Pact of Steel.
  • France has cemented its alliance with the USSR and Great Britain stands uncomfortably to the side.
  • The Spanish civil war widens these divides is eerily similar to the Cold War era with proxy wars between the Fascist countries, Germany and Italy, and the non-Fascist countries, the US, France, Great Britain, and others.
• Spain in the 20th Century and the Formation of the Popular Front
  • They are primarily agrarian with industrial development with few natural resources. Dominated by a well-entrenched landed aristocracy.
  • Peasantry are poor tenants, dominated by aristocracy and the Church.
  • The the 1920s, there is an anarchist movement, socialist movement, communist movement, and separatism. The three distinct groups are the Catalonians, Madrileños, and Basques, who all merge into a republicanism (anti-monarchical, anti-clerical).
  • In 1931 the effete King of Spain Alfonso the 13th will abdicate in the face of sporadic violence and protests and urges the formation of the Republic.
  • The Leftist coalition will form the Republic of Spain in 1931. The coalition is weak and reforms are met with resistance from aristocracy and church.
  • In 1931-34 the Republic will unsuccessfully try to solve Spain's problems that are heightened by the Great Depression.
  • Azañas government falls with violent strikes in Asturias mining region put down by an increasingly independent and right wing army.
  • The strikes were broken up by an Army General Francisco Franco (strong man totalitarian dictator after the Civil War).
  • In 1934-36, the right government gets repressive and brutal and becomes voted out in 1936 and the Popular Front government formed with Communist participation. A coalition becomes a popular front when the Communist party is joined
• Political Groups
  • Now Spanish Government becomes an idealogical fútbol for Europe.
  • The military under Franco forms a paramilitary resistance group called the Phalangistas, who began to revolt agains the Popular Front.
  • The republicans devolves into a bloody civil war (1936-39) in which 500,000 Spaniards die.
  • Civil war has the effect of diverting attention in Europe away from Hitler who openly supports the Fascist Phalangistas of Franco.
  • Franco primarily supported Mussolini financially and with troops (75,000) Hitler also sends troops but never enough to turn the tide. Include experimental armored units.
  • The new tactics developed by French General Charles Degaulles.
  • The Nazis also send a new monoplane, all metal ai craft, Luf-tanaffe. The Condor Legion, experimental with carpet bombing Guernica bombed by Germans in 1936.
  • This bombing leads to Pablo Picasso's Guernica
• European Involvement
  • The Republicans/Loyalists of the Popular Front are unofficially aided by Great Britain and Farnce with mainly volunteer troops
  • The US also organizes a volunteer brigade out of the Mother Jones Socialist movement in Chicago called the Abraham Lincoln Brigade, which was mainly a medical corps, and one its member is Ernest Hemingway, who wrote For Whom the Bell Tolls.
  • Military unit fights which is commanded by an African American.
  • Soviet Union and Stalin provide the bulk of financial aid and material support to the Spanish Republicans

Germany On the Rise

• Western European are concerned about German aggressions because of
  • German rearmament
  • They have left the League of Nations, and along with it, the idea of collective security
  • Austrian Anschluss/ Murder of Dollfus
  • Germans softened the blows with the Polish Non-aggression Pact, Anglo German Naval Agreement (AGNA), and Hitler's repudiation of the Nazi-led attempted Anschluss.
  • Though the Germans soften the blows, there are still concerns directed towards them.
• French Policy
  • France during the mid 30's completed their anti-German defense system called the Maginot Line. This emboldens their foreign policy a little bit.
  • Aristide Briand has aged out and been replaced by shady, back door dealing politician called Pierre Laval.
  • Laval was eventually executed for collaborating with the Germans during WW2.
  • Laval in 1935, will sign an alliance with the USSR. The Franco-Soviet Alliance was ratified in March 1936. This activates the old two-front war threat.
  • The Franco-Soviet Alliance is only activated if Locarno signatories agree, so that the treaties are interlocking.
  • Stalin, fearful of aggressive Fascism, has opened communications with the West and through the Comintern construct domestic Communist Parties to cooporate against Right/Fascists.
  • By 1936 the French Government will be led by a leftist coalition of Socialists, Radical Socialists (Centrist) and Communists called the Popular Front.
  • There is a reaction against leftist policies in France. The French rightists think, "Better Hitler than Leon Blum."
  • Leon Blum is socialist and Jewish, and concludes the Soviet pact. Hitler takes notice.
• Great Britain, France, and Italy decide to bond together to resist German Aggression
  • In 1935, the three will meet at Stresa front in Northern Italy and form the Stresa Front. This reaffirms
    • The Locarno obligations
    • All pledge to protect the integrity of Austria
    • Territorial changes in Europe via the League of Nations
  • During Stresa, Mussolini is playing a secondary game. He informs the British about his intended expansion in East Africa.
  • Recall- Italy's empire dreams in Africa focus on the horn of Africa. Italy wants Somalia, Eritrea, with Ethiopia in between.
  • Ethiopia/Abyssinia had defeated Italy in am Imperial War in 1896 at Battle of Adowa/Adwa.
  • Massacre British do not respond and Mussolini takes it as approval.
• Ethiopian Crisis (1935-1936)
  • The fighting beings as a border dispute between Ethiopia and Somalia. Italians with Somalian troops build a fort on the disputed border at Walwal (called the Walwal incident). They were fighting and 150 are killed in military action. Ethiopia is a League Member and appeals to the League. So the League sends a commission.
  • The Ethiopian King's name is Ras Tafari.
  • The Manchurian Crisis 1931 with Japan has lead the League to establish the machinery of economic sanctions against the next offender, which is Italy.
  • The conundrum is upholding the League or maintaining the Stresa Front.
  • If they sanctions are applied by the League against Italy (clearly aggression against another member) and risk losing Italy in the Stresa Front against Germany
  • Or they could not apply the sanctions and cause the League to loose credibility, but GBR and France try to humor Italy.
  • The decision is to not deny them Suez canal access. GBR and France try to "have their cake and eat it too" and do both.
• Hoare-Laval Plan
  • French and British foreign ministers meet to try to find an amicable solution.
  • Pierre Laval (Popular Front) and Samuel Hoare create the Hoare-Laval Plan
  • The premise is that France wants to empower the League but do not want it to appear that they are manipulating League policy.
  • They also want to mollify Mussolini for Stresa and Locarno. The Plan is to have the agreement put forth by the League.
  • Details
    • Mussolini will be given Ethiopian territory, but Ethiopia will remain independent Ethiopia will be compensated with territory from British Somalia with access to the sea. Called the "Corridor for Camels"
    • Mussolini accepts the terms
  • Before the League announces "their solution," the French Right Wing press leaks the details of the deal embarasses the Leftist Popular Front.
  • The British is outrages as well, as is the general public in both countries Both Hoare and Laval resign in the midst of the public furor.
  • The British revisionist historian AJP Taylor claims the Hoare-Laval is the clear fault of Britain and France. He thinks it paved the way to war.
• The Pact of Steel
  • Ethiopia is conquered and incorporated into Italy
  • The League is no longer respected as an instrument of peace
  • Italy withdraws form the League and Stresa Front and repudiates Locarno
  • Italy in 1936 sings an alliance with Germany, called The Pact of Steel. Also called an anti-Comintern Pact.
  • Italy for the Minister of Ciano Pact forms "the Axis around which Europe must revolve"
• Remilitarization of the Rhineland
  • In May 1936, Leon Blum Popular Front Government formally ratifies the Franco-Soviet Alliance.
  • Hitler, sensing the division in Europe, violates another part of the Versailles Treaty.
  • Hitler sends troops back into the Rhineland: Remilitarization of the Rhineland
  • France wants to go to war, but will not without the assistance Great Britain.
  • Great Britain demurs on the issue, since they think that the Germans send troops into their "own backyard." Yes this violates Versailles, but Versailles was a bad treaty.
  • This is Germany's first overt act of aggression, which drives him closer to Italy. After 1936, Hitler becomes aggressive in order to get ACP!